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5G terminals support the simultaneous establishment of multiple PDU sessions; regarding the uplink in these sessions, 3GPP defines the following in TS23.501:   I. Uplink Classifier: For IPv4, IPv6, IPv4v6, or Ethernet type PDU sessions, the SMF can decide to insert an UL CL (Uplink Classifier) in the data path of the PDU session; The UL CL is a function supported by the UPF, designed to locally offload part of the traffic based on traffic filters provided by the SMF. UL CL insertion and removal are decided by the SMF and controlled by the SMF using generic N4 and UPF functions.   II. The SMF can decide to insert a UPF supporting UL CL functionality into the PDU session data path during or after PDU session establishment, and can also decide to remove a UPF supporting UL CL functionality from the PDU session data path after PDU session establishment. The SMF can include multiple UPFs supporting UL CL functionality in the PDU session data path. The UE is unaware of the traffic offloading caused by the UL CL and does not participate in the insertion and removal of the UL CL.   III. UE Handling For IPv4, IPv6, or IPv4v6 type PDU sessions, the UE associates the PDU session with a single IPv4 address, a single IPv6 prefix, or both, assigned by the network. When the UL CL function is inserted into the data path of the PDU session, the PDU session will have multiple PDU session anchors. These PDU session anchors provide different access methods to the same DN. For IPv4, IPv6, or IPv4v6 type PDU sessions, the UE only obtains one IPv4 address and/or IPv6 prefix. The SMF can configure local policies for certain (DNN, S-NSSAI) combinations so that the PDU session is released when the IPv4 address assigned to the UE is associated with a PSA and that PSA has been removed.   IV. UL CL Application: The current version only supports terminals (UEs) using one IPv4 address and/or IPv6 prefix and configuring multiple PDU session anchors, provided that appropriate mechanisms are deployed to correctly forward packets at the N6 reference point when needed. The R18 specification does not cover the mechanism for packet forwarding between the local access PDU session anchor and the DN over the N6 reference point; where: The UL CL provides forwarding of UL traffic to different PDU session anchors and merging of DL traffic to the UE, i.e., merging traffic from different PDU session anchors on the link to the UE. This is based on traffic detection and forwarding rules provided by the SMF. The UL CL applies filtering rules (e.g., checking the destination IP address/prefix of UL IP packets sent by the UE) and determines how the packets are routed. The UPF supporting the UL CL can also be controlled by the SMF to support charging traffic measurement, LI traffic replication, and bitrate enforcement (per PDU session AMBR).

I. PDU Session Anchor: In the 5G (NR) system, each PDU session for a terminal (UE) must first complete the PSA (PDU Session Anchor); this task is performed by the UPF (User Plane Function) through the N6 interface of the PDU session (acting as a gateway connecting to the external DN (Data Network)). The PSA acts as the anchor point for each data session of the terminal (UE), managing data flow and establishing connections to services such as the internet. When the UE performs multiple services, the anchor point for each session in multiple PDU sessions is defined by 3GPP in TS23.501 as follows:   II. Multiple PDU Session Anchors: To support selective traffic routing to the DN or to support   In SSC Mode 3 as defined in TS23.501 Section 5.6.9.2.3, the SMF can control the data path of the PDU session so that the PDU session can correspond to multiple N6 interfaces simultaneously. The UPF terminating each interface is called a PDU session anchor. Each PDU session anchor supporting the PDU session provides access to different DNs.   Furthermore, the PDU session anchor assigned during PDU session establishment is associated with its SSC mode, while other PDU session anchors assigned in the same PDU session (e.g., for selective traffic routing to the DN) are independent of the PDU session's SSC mode. When PCC rules containing traffic steering enforcement control information influenced by the AF as defined in TS 23.503[45] clause 6.3.1 are provided to the SMF, the SMF may decide whether to apply traffic routing based on the DNAI included in the PCC rules (by using the UL classifier function or IPv6 multi-homing).   ----The AF-influenced traffic steering enforcement control information can be determined by the PCF when requested by the AF via the NEF (as described in clause 5.6.7.1), or it can be statically pre-configured in the PCF. ----Selective traffic routing to the DN supports deployments where, for example, certain selected traffic is forwarded via the N6 interface to a DN "closer" to the AN serving the UE. This may correspond to: the UL classifier function for PDU sessions as defined in clause 5.6.4.2; the use of IPv6 multi-homing in PDU sessions as defined in clause 5.6.4.3.

The NTN (Non-Terrestrial Network) introduced by 3GPP in its standardization roadmap aims to achieve full 5G coverage and connectivity through satellites and airborne platforms. Key terminology includes:   1. NTN Definition: This is a wireless network technology approved by 3GPP, where access nodes are deployed on space-based or air-based platforms such as satellites or High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS), rather than being fixed to ground infrastructure. NTN networks are typically used to extend coverage to areas where ground network deployment is impractical or economically unfeasible. From a 3GPP perspective, NTN is not an independent technology, but rather an extension of 5G (NR). NTN reuses and adapts NR protocols, parameters, and procedures as much as possible to support long propagation delays, high Doppler shifts, large cell sizes, and platform mobility.   2. NTN Platforms: This is the most basic classification of satellite orbits, which directly affects latency, coverage, and mobility; specifically including:   GEO (Geostationary Orbit): GEO satellites are located at an altitude of approximately 35,786 kilometers and are stationary relative to the Earth. GEO (Geosynchronous Orbit) satellites have wide coverage but high round-trip delay, making them unsuitable for latency-sensitive services. MEO (Medium Earth Orbit): MEO satellites operate at altitudes between 2,000 and 20,000 kilometers, achieving a balance between coverage and latency; this is particularly emphasized in the current 3GPP NTN specifications. LEO (Low Earth Orbit): LEO satellites operate at altitudes between 300 and 2,000 kilometers. They offer low latency and high throughput, but move very quickly relative to the Earth, leading to frequent inter-satellite handovers and significant Doppler effects. VLEO (Very Low Earth Orbit): VLEO refers to experimental satellites designed to operate at altitudes below 300 kilometers. They are expected to achieve ultra-low latency but face significant atmospheric challenges. HAPS (High Altitude Platform Station): HAPS typically operate at altitudes between 20 and 50 kilometers. HAPS platforms include: solar-powered drones, balloons, and airships. High Altitude Platform Systems (HAPS) can act as NR base stations, relays, or coverage enhancers, and compared to satellites, they have quasi-static characteristics and significantly lower latency.   3. Wireless Access (Terminology) NTN gNB: This is a 5G (NR) base station specifically modified for non-terrestrial deployment. Depending on the architecture, the NTN gNB can be fully hosted on a satellite or HAPS, partially deployed in space and partially on the ground, or entirely ground-based with the satellite acting as a relay. The functional division between space and ground is a key design choice. Transparent Payload or Bent-Pipe Architecture: In a transparent payload or bent-pipe architecture, the satellite does not perform baseband processing. This architecture aims to simplify satellite design, but its operation is highly dependent on the availability of ground infrastructure and feeder links; the transmission payload performs the following functions: Receiving radio frequency signals from user equipment (UE) Performing frequency shifting and amplification Forwarding them to the ground base station (gNB) via the feeder link Regenerative Payload: Performs part or all of Layer 1 and Layer 2 processing on the satellite. In this model, the satellite itself carries the gNB functionality. This architecture reduces feeder link latency, improves scalability, and enables localized decision-making. However, regenerative payloads increase the complexity and cost of the satellite.   4. NTN Links Service Link: Specifically refers to the wireless connection between the user equipment (UE) and the NTN platform (satellite or high-altitude platform). It uses the NR air interface waveform suitable for large cell radii and extended timing advance. Diagram of 5G NTN service link, inter-satellite link, feeder link, and ground network integration. Feeder Link: This connects the satellite to the gateway ground station, which interfaces with the 5G core network. Feeder links typically operate at higher frequencies and require high-capacity backhaul links. Inter-Satellite Link (ISL): Supports direct communication between satellites, allowing data to be routed in space without direct involvement of ground stations. ISL enhances network resilience and reduces end-to-end latency.   5. Network Architecture Gateway Earth Station: The gateway earth station acts as the interface between the satellite system and the 5G core network. It connects the feeder link and plays a crucial role in mobility and session continuity. 5GC supporting NTN: From a protocol perspective, the 5G core network (5GC) remains largely unchanged. Enhancements primarily focus on: supporting long latency, handling large cells, and optimizing processing procedures for idle and connected modes. D2D NTN (Direct-to-Device): User equipment (UE) communicates directly with satellites/high-altitude platforms (HAPS) without intermediate ground access. Hybrid NTN-TN architecture: NTN complements the terrestrial network, used for fallback, offloading, or extending coverage. Relay-based NTN: Satellites or high-altitude platforms (HAPS) act as relay nodes between user equipment (UE) and the terrestrial network.