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Base station power in mobile communications is a key factor in determining wireless cell coverage and communication quality; in the 5G (NR) system base station (gNB) total power, cell power and reference signal power in addition to the BBU (baseband unit) output, but also with the antenna (Port) number and the cell bandwidth (BW) related to the calculation are as follows;   I. Reference Signal Power This is the power value measured and reported by the terminal (UE) and the total transmit power of the cell can be calculated by the following formula first for each channel power;   In the above equation: Maximum Transmit Power: Transmit power per single channel (in dBm); Reference Signal Power (Reference Signal Power): single channel per RE power (in dBm units). RBcell (cell bandwidth): the total number of RBs in the cell (each RB has 12 REs).   Calculation example Assuming that the maximum output power of the BTS system configuration is 40dBm (10W per channel), the results for different subcarrier intervals are as follows.   1. at subcarrier interval 15KHz 270RBs (cell bandwidth 50MHz): Reference signal power = 40-10 x log10(270x12) = 40-35.10 Reference signal power = 4.9dBm   2. at subcarrier spacing of 30 KHz 273 RBs (cell bandwidth 100MHz): Reference signal power = 40-10 x log10(273 x12) = 40 - 35.15 Reference signal power = 4.85 dBm   3. At subcarrier spacing of 60KHz 130RBs (cell bandwidth 100MHz) Reference signal power = 40-10 x log10(130x12) = 40 - 31.93 Reference signal power = 8.07dBm     II.the total transmit power of 5G (NR) base station The calculation needs to take into account the maximum transmit power and the number of Tx antennas, which can be calculated by the following formula:   Antennas and cells with the same maximum power are 40 dBm, which can be calculated for different antenna configurations total Tx (transmit) power, which:8, 16, 64 and 128 antenna system when respectively as follows: 8Tx antenna total transmit power = 40 + 10xlog10(8) = 40 + 9.03 = 49.03 dBm Total transmit power of 16Tx antenna = 40+10xlog10(16) = 40+12.04 = 52.04 dBm 64Tx antenna total transmit power = 40+10 x log10(64) = 40+18.06 = 58.06 dBm 128Tx antenna total transmit power = 40+10x log10(128) = 40+21.07=61.07dBm   ----- Total transmit power is the top-of-air power, including the antenna gain (directional gain in dBi) used to calculate the equivalent omnidirectional radiated power (EIRP).  

The radio access network (RAN) in a mobile communication system must be connected to the core network through an interface and then interoperate with public communications and the Internet. After that, the mobile terminal (UE) can realize data and voice communication; this interface is N3 in 5G.   I. N3 interface It is the interface between NG RAN (radio access network) and 5GC (core network) in 5G (NR) system; the main function is to realize the exchange of user data and signaling messages between core network and radio access network. Fig. 1.N3 interface location in 5G system     II.N3 uses mainly include the following; Data transmission:The N3 carries user-plane and control-plane traffic, where the user plane is responsible for transmitting user data, such as Internet traffic, voice calls, and multimedia content, between the user equipment and the 5G core network. Control signaling:In addition to user data, the N3 interface handles control signaling messages. These messages are critical for establishing, managing and releasing connections between user equipment (UE) and 5G core network functions. Interface Protocols:The N3 interface relies on a variety of protocols to communicate and ensure that the core network and RAN elements correctly transmit and interpret data and signaling messages.Common protocols used on the N3 interface include IP (Internet Protocol), SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol), and other protocols specific to the 5G network architecture. Dynamic Connectivity:The N3 interface allows for dynamic and flexible connection management, a key feature of 5G networks. It supports seamless switching, Quality of Service (QoS) tuning, and efficient resource allocation to provide a superior user experience. Slicing Support:Network slicing is a fundamental concept in 5G that supports the creation of multiple virtual networks within a single physical infrastructure.The N3 interface plays a critical role in supporting network slicing by ensuring that traffic for each slice is properly routed and managed within the NG RAN. Scalability:The N3 interface is designed to handle large volumes of data traffic and signaling messages, making it suitable for a variety of 5G use cases, including: eMBB (enhanced mobile broadband), URLLC (ultra-reliable low-latency communication), and mMTC (massive machine type communication). The N3 interface is a key component of the 5G (NR) system architecture, enabling high-performance communications between the 5G core network and the radio access network, and it is critical to take advantage of the benefits of 5G technology to bring it to the user (UE) and its applications.    

Whenever a terminal (UE) is ready to make a call or transmit data in a mobile communication system, it needs to connect with the core network first, which is due to the fact that the system temporarily removes the connection between the UR and the core network after the first time it is powered on or in an idle state for a period of time; the connection and management of the access connection between the terminal (UE) and the core network (5GC) in 5G (NR) is handled by the AMF unit, whose connection management (CM) is used to establish and release the control plane signaling connection between the UE and the AMF.     I. CM State Describes the signaling connection management (Connection Management) state between the terminal (UE) and the AMF, which is mainly used for transmitting NAS signaling messages; for this reason 3GPP defines two connection management states for the UE and the AMF respectively: CM-Idle (Connection Management in Idle state) CM-Connected (Connected state connection management)   CM-Idle and CM-Connected states are maintained by the UE and AMF through the NAS layer;   II.CM CHARACTERISTICS Depending on the connection between the UE and the AMF. among others: CM-Idle state the mobile equipment (UE) has not entered the signaling transmission state (RRC-Idle) with the core node (AMF). when the UE is in CM-Idle state it can move between different cells when it moves by mobile control according to the cell reselection principle. CM-Connected state the UE establishes a signaling connection with the AMF (RRC-Connected and RRC-Inactive). the UE and the AMF can establish a connection based on the N1 (logical) interface will enter the CM-Connected state to perform the following intra interactions: RRC signaling between the UE and the gNB N2-AP signaling between the gNB and the AMF III. CM State Transition The connection state between the UE and the AMF can be initiated by the UE or the AMF respectively as shown in the following figure: 3.1 UE Initiated State Transition Once the RRC connection is established the UE state will enter CM-Connected; within the AMF once the established N2 context is received the UE state will enter CM-Connected; this can be performed by a registration request and a service request; where: When the UE is powered on for the first time, it selects the best gNB according to the cell selection process and sends a registration request to initiate the RRC connection setup signaling to the gNB and sends the N2 signaling to the AMF. The registration request triggers the transition from CM-Idle to CM-Connected. When the UE is in CM-Idle state and must send uplink data, the UE triggers a Service Request NAS message to the AMF and changes the CM-Idle to CM-Connected.   3.2 Network initiated state transition When there is downlink data to be transmitted to the CM-Idle UE, the network MUST use paging to initiate the state transition process. Paging triggers the UE to establish an RRC connection and send a Request NAS message to the AMF. The request triggers the N2 signaling connection to move the UE to CM-Connected.   When the signaling connection is released or the signaling connection fails, the UE can move from CM-Connected to CM-Idle.

SMO (Service Management and Orchestration) defined by Open RAN Alliance is a wireless resource automation platform for mobile communications.SMO framework specification is defined by Open RAN Alliance as a component of OSS system to support a variety of deployment options to meet the needs of end-users; SMO can be deployed in a distributed system, but also deployed in the telecom cloud services and other places.   I. Platform Architecture The SMO platform is shown in the following figure (1) The architecture includes consists of O-CU (Open Central Unit), O-DU (Open Distributed Unit) and Near RT-RIC (Near Real Time Radio Intelligent Controller), which are defined as cloud-native virtualization functions running on cloud infrastructure, also known as O-Cloud.   Ⅱ. SMO features are responsible for overseeing network functions and O-Cloud lifecycle management.SMOs include Non-Real-Time Radio Intelligent Controllers or Non-RT-RICs.The architecture defines a variety of SMO interfaces, O1, O2, and A1, that allow SMOs to manage multi-vendor Open RAN networks.ORAN is standardizing on extensions to the O1, A1, and R1 interfaces to enable a competitive ecosystem and accelerate new features to market. ORAN is standardizing extensions to the O1, A1 and R1 interfaces to enable a competitive ecosystem and accelerate time-to-market for new features. Supports licensing, access control and AI/ML lifecycle management and legacy northbound interfaces; Support for existing OSS features such as service orchestration, inventory, topology and policy control; The R1 interface allows rApp portability and lifecycle management. By supporting third-party Equipment Management System (EMS) specific proprietary southbound interfaces, SMO will be able to automate existing, purpose-built multi-vendor RAN as well as Open RAN networks. Ⅲ​. SMO interfaces mainly include: R1 interface:R1 interface for multi-vendor rApp, designed to support multi-vendor rApp portability and provide value-added services for rApp developers and solution providers; the interface enables Open APIs to be integrated into SMO; as a service it includes: service registration and discovery services, authentication and authorization services, AI/ML workflow services, and A1, O1 and O2 related services. A1 Interface: The interface is used for policy guidance; SMO provides fine-grained policy guidance, such as allowing user devices to change frequencies, as well as providing other data enrichment capabilities to RAN functions through the A1 interface. O1 Interface:SMO supports the O1 interface for managing OAM (Operations and Maintenance) for multi-vendor Open RAN functions, including fault, configuration, accounting, performance and security management, software management, and file management functions. O2 Interface:The O2 interface in SMO is used to support cloud infrastructure management and deployment operations for Open RAN functions in the O-Cloud infrastructure hosting network.The O2 interface supports the orchestration of O-Cloud infrastructure resource management (e.g., inventory, monitoring, provisioning, software management, and lifecycle management) and the deployment of Open RAN network functions to provide logical services for managing the lifecycle of deployments using cloud resources. M-Plane:SMO supports the organization of Cloud infrastructure resource management (e.g., inventory, monitoring, configuration, software management and M-Plane: SMO supports the Open FrontHaul M-plane based on NETCONF/YANG as an alternative to the O1 interface to support multi-vendor O-RU integration. the Open FrontHaul M-plane supports management functions including boot installation, software management, configuration management, performance management, fault management, and file management.   IV.RAN Optimization The SMO framework can be used for RAN optimization with the help of Non-RT RICs and rApps. non-RT RICs enable non-real-time intelligent RAN optimization by providing policy-based guidance using data analytics and AI/ML models. non-RT RICs can take advantage of SMO solutions, such as data collection and configuration services for O-RAN nodes. Additionally, rApps that are modular applications can leverage the functionality exposed by the non-RT RIC and SMO frameworks through the R1 interface to perform multi-vendor RAN optimization and assurance.

Ⅰ、MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) technology enhances wireless communication by using multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver. It improves data throughput, extends coverage, improves reliability, resists interference, improves spectral efficiency, supports multi-user communications and saves energy, making it a key technology in modern wireless networks such as Wi-Fi and 4G/5G.   Ⅱ、MIMO Advantages MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is a technology used in communication systems (especially wireless and radio communications) that involves multiple antennas on the transmitter and receiver.The advantages of MIMO system are as follows: Data throughput enhancement:One of the main advantages of MIMO is its ability to increase data throughput. It is by using multiple antennas at both ends (transmitter and receiver), a MIMO system can send and receive multiple data streams simultaneously. This results in higher data rates, which is especially important in high-demand scenarios such as streaming HD video or online gaming. Extended Coverage:MIMO can improve the coverage of a wireless communication system. By using multiple antennas, the system allows signals to be transmitted in different directions or paths, reducing the likelihood of signal fading or interference. This is especially beneficial in environments with obstacles or interference. Increased Reliability:MIMO systems are more reliable because they can mitigate the effects of fading and interference by using spatial diversity, where if one path or antenna is jammed or faded, the other can still transmit data; this redundancy increases the reliability of the communication link. Greater Resistance to Interference:MIMO systems are inherently more resistant to interference from other wireless devices and the environment. The use of multiple antennas allows the use of advanced signal processing techniques such as spatial filtering, which can filter out interference and noise. Increased Spectral Efficiency:MIMO systems can achieve greater spectral efficiency, meaning they can transmit more data using the same amount of available spectrum. This is critical when available spectrum is limited. Multi-User Support:MIMO can support multiple users simultaneously through the use of spatial multiplexing. Each user can be assigned a unique spatial stream, allowing multiple users to access the network without significant interference. Increased Energy Efficiency:MIMO systems can be more energy efficient than traditional single antenna systems. By optimizing the use of multiple antennas, MIMO can transmit the same amount of data with lower power consumption. Compatibility with Existing Facilities:MIMO technology can often be integrated into existing communications infrastructure, making it a practical option for upgrading wireless networks without a complete overhaul.   MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) technology offers a variety of advantages, including increased data throughput, improved coverage and reliability, immunity to interference, enhanced spectral efficiency, support for multiple users, and improved energy efficiency. These advantages make MIMO a fundamental technology for modern wireless communication systems, including Wi-Fi, 4G and 5G networks.

After accessing the 5GC via non3GPP WALN, the terminal (UE) starts PDU session establishment after completing registration, authentication and authorization, during which user data, uplink and downlink traffic and QoS are defined as follows;   I. User plane After completing the PDU session establishment and establishing the user plane IPsec sub-SA between the UE and the N3IWF, the UE can use the established IPsec sub-SA and the associated GTPU tunnels between the N3IWF and the UPF to send upstream and downstream traffic with various QoS flows for the session over the untrusted WLAN network.   II.When the UE has to transmit a UL PDU, it shall determine the QFI associated with the PDU using the QoS rules of the corresponding PDU session and encapsulate the PDU in a GRE packet, with the QFI value located in the header of the GRE packet.The UE shall forward the GRE packet to the N3IWF via the IPsec sub-SA associated with the QFI by encapsulated into an IPsec packet in tunnel mode, with the source address being the UE IP address and the destination address being the UP IP address associated with the sub-SA.   When the N3IWF receives a UL PDU, it shall decapsulate the IPsec header and the GRE header and determine the GTPU tunnel ID corresponding to the PDU session.The N3IWF shall encapsulate the UL PDU in a GTPU packet and place the QFI value in the header of the GTPY packet and forward the GTPU packet to the UPF via the N3. III.Downstream Traffic When the N3IWF receives a DL PDU from the UPF via the N3, the N3IWF shall decapsulate the GTPU header and use the QFI and the PDU session identifier in the GTPU header to determine the IPsec Child SA to be used to send the DL PDU to the UE via the NWu.   The N3IWF shall encapsulate the DL PDU within a GRE packet and place the QFI value in the header of the GRE packet.The N3IWF may also include a Reflected QoS Indicator (RQI) in the GRE header, which shall be used by the UE to enable Reflected QoS.The N3IWF shall forward the GRE packet, along with the DL PDU, through the IPsec Child SA associated with the QFI to the UE by encapsulating the GRE packet into an IP packet in tunnel mode, where the source address is the UP IP address associated with the sub-SA and the destination address is the address of the UE.   IV.QoS For UEs accessing the 5GCN over untrusted WLANs, the N3IWF supports QoS differentiation and mapping of QoS flows to non 3GPP access resources.The QoS flows are controlled by the SMF and can be pre-configured or established through the PDU session establishment or modification process requested by the UE.The N3IWF shall determine the user plane to be established based on the local policy, configuration, and QoS profile received from the network. profile to determine the number of user plane IPsec sub-SAs to be established and the QoS profile associated with each sub-SA. The N3IWF shall then initiate an IPsec SA creation process to the UE to establish the sub-SAs associated with the QoS flows of the PDU session.The QoS functions of the UE, the N3IWF, and the UPF are specified in figure (1) below.   Figure 1.QoS for ungranted WLAN access to 5GCNs   Non-granted non 3GPP access essentially corresponds to a WLAN interworking with 5GCN, which is served over N3IWF. However, unlike earlier architectures in which the WLAN pass-through network elements (PDG/ePDG) were part of the 3GPP core network, the N3IWF acts as an access network similar to the 3GPP access. This allows common procedures for registration, authentication and session handling in both 3GPP Access and non 3GPP Access. Paging, mobile registration, and periodic registration are not supported in non-granted WLANs. Multiple PDU sessions can be established on both 3GPP access and non-granted WLANs, and PDU sessions can be switched between them. It is also possible to establish multiple access PDU sessions on 3GPP Access and Ungranted WLANs that support ATSSS.  

After accessing 5GC via non 3GPP, the terminal (UE) will start PDU session establishment after completing registration, authentication and authorization, and the specific processes are as follows; I. PDU Session Establishment After the terminal (UE) accesses the 5GC via WLAN, the PDU session establishment involves N31WF, AMF, SMF, and UPFF, etc., and the flow is shown in Figure (1) below;   Fig. 1.PDU session establishment of 5GCN terminal (UE) accessed via WLAN   II. PDU session establishment steps The UE sends a PDU session establishment request using NAS signaling IPsec SA to the N3IWF, which transparently forwards it to the AMF in a NAS UL message. A process similar to the PDU session establishment in 3GPP access is performed in the 5GCN (shown in Figure 1 above). The AMF sends an N2 PDU Session Resource Setup Request message to the N3IWF to establish the WLAN resources for this PDU session. This message includes the QoS profile and associated QFI, PDU session ID, UL GTPU tunnel information, and NAS PDU session establishment acceptance. The N3IWF determines the number of IPsec sub-SAs to be established and the QoS profile associated with each IPsec sub-SA based on its own policy, configuration, and QoS profile received. The N3IWF sends an IKE Create Sub-SA request to establish the first IPsec sub-SA of the PDU session. which includes the QFI, PDU session ID, and UP IP address associated with the sub-SA, as well as an optional DSCP value and default sub-SA indication. The UE sends an IKE Create Sub-SA response when it accepts an IKE Create Sub-SA request. The N3IWF establishes determines other IPsec sub-SAs, each associated with one or more QFIs and a UP IP address. After all IP sub-SAs are established, the N3IWF forwards a PDU Session Establishment Acceptance message to the UE via the signaling IPsec SA to initiate UL data. The N3IWF also sends an N2 PDU Session Resource Setup Response to the AMF that includes the DL GTPU Tunnel information, which further performs a process similar to the PDU Session Establishment process in 3GPP Access (as shown in Figure 1) and enables the initiation of D Data.   The PDU session for 3GPP access may be serviced by a different SMF than the one that serves the PDU session for non3GPP access.   III. PDU session deactivation The deactivation of an existing PDU session UP connection results in the deactivation of the corresponding NWu connection (i.e., IPsec sub-SA and N3 tunnel). When the UE is in the CM-CONNECTED state, it can independently deactivate the UP connections of different PDU sessions. If the PDU session is an always-on PDU session, the SMF shall not deactivate the UP connection for this PDU session due to inactivity. Release of a PDU session via non3GPP access does not imply release of the N2 connection.   IV. Paging Issues The non-granting WLAN does not support paging; therefore, when the AMF receives a message corresponding to the PDU session of the UE in CM-IDLE state in non3GPP access, it may perform the network-triggered service request procedure over 3GPP access regardless of the 3GPP access UE state. The network-triggered service request procedure for non3GPP access can also be executed in the AMF for the UE in CM-IDLE state in 3GPP access and for the UE in CM-CONNECTED state in non 3GPP access when 3GPP access paging is not performed.   V. 3GPP and non 3GPP Access Multiple PDU Sessions A UE registered over both 3GPP access and non-granted WLAN may have multiple PDU sessions on both accesses, with each PDU session being active in only one of the accesses. When the UE switches to CM-IDLE in either access, the UE may move the PDU session in the corresponding access to the target access according to the UE policy.The UE may need to initiate the registration procedure for the switchover in the target access, and then initiate the PDU session to establish and move the PDU session ID of the session; the core network maintains the PDU session but deactivates the N3 user-plane connection for such PDU session; Depending on the implementation the UE may initiate the logout procedure in the absence of PDU session access.   VI. Multiple Access PDU Sessions 3GPP Release16 supports Access Traffic Control, Switching and Splitting (ATSSS), which allows PDU sessions with multiple packet flows in a multiple access PDU session to be able to select either a 3GPP access or an untrusted WLAN for each of the packet flows or the packet flows to be able to switch between a 3GPP access and an ungranted WLAN or the packet flows to be able to split between 3GPP access and untrusted WLAN; the PDU session establishment process contains additional information and user plane establishment for the same purpose.

1、Self-healing is the ability of a wireless network in a SON to automatically detect and localize most faults and apply self-healing mechanisms to resolve many types of faults; for example, reducing output power or automatically reverting to a previous software version in the event of a temperature fault.   2、All areas of the existing network may fail from time to time, and many of these failures can be overcome by self-healing without major problems and in many cases spare hardware can be used. Self-healing of wireless networks mainly involves the following areas:   software self-recovery - the ability to revert to a previous version of software when a problem occurs. circuit failure self-healing - usually involves redundant circuits that can be switched over to spare circuits. unit interrupt detection-identifying problems by remotely inspecting a specific unit. unit outage recovery - routines to assist in unit recovery, which may include detection and diagnosis as well as automated recovery solutions and reporting of operational results. cell outage compensation - A method of providing optimal service to users during maintenance.   3、Fault Management and Self-Repair Wireless cells shall be able to easily return to a pre-failure state through self-repair, thus eliminating any compensation operations that may have been initiated; network fault management and correction requires significant human intervention, automated wherever possible; therefore, fault identification and self-repair is an important solution, and the following points are important components of the solution: Automatic Fault Recognition Equipment faults are usually detected automatically by the equipment itself. However, fault detection messages are not always generated or transmitted when the detection system itself is damaged. eNodeB Such unrecognized faults are often referred to as dormant cells, and they are detected through performance statistics. Cell Outage Compensation When a device failure is detected, the SON analyzes the device's internal logs to identify the root cause and takes some recovery actions, such as reverting to a previous software version or switching to a standby cell. When an equipment failure cannot be resolved by these measures, the affected and neighboring cells will take collaborative measures to minimize the quality degradation perceived by users. For example, in urban areas covered by multiple microcells, it is effective to relocate users from a faulty cell to a normal cell by collaboratively adjusting coverage and switching related parameters in nearby cells. This can shorten the fault recovery time and assign maintenance staff more efficiently.

In the 5G(NR) system, two types of data units, PDU and SDU, are passed between the terminal and the network respectively, and usually the terminal (UE) provides end-to-end user-plane connectivity between the UPF (User-Place Function) and the DN (Specific Data Network) through the PDUSession; this is because the SDU is passed from the OSI layer or sublayer to the lower layer in the OSI-based (Open System Interconnection) system, and the SDU has not been encapsulated into the PDU (Protocol Data Unit) by the lower layer. OSI (Open System Interconnection) based systems SDUs are data units passed from the OSI layer or sub-layer to the lower layers, which have not yet been encapsulated into PDUs (Protocol Data Units) by the lower layers, whereas the SDUs are encapsulated into the lower layer's PDUs and the process continues until the PHY (Physical Layer) of the OSI stack. Regarding SDU and PDU in 5G(NR), 3GPP defines them as follows;     1、 SDU(Service Data Unit) Definition:A Service Data Unit (SDU) is a unit of data that is passed from the upper layer to the lower layer in the network protocol stack; the SDU contains the payload or the data that needs to be transmitted, and the upper layer expects the lower layer to be able to transmit this data. Role:SDUs are essentially data that a service (application or process) wishes to transmit using the underlying network. When the SDU is passed to the lower protocol layer for transmission, it may be combined with other information (e.g., header or tail) to convert it into a Protocol Data Unit (PDU) appropriate for that layer. 2、The PDU (protocol data unit) Definition:A PDU (Protocol Data Unit) is a combination of SDUs and protocol-specific control information (e.g., header and tail). Each layer in the network can add or remove its own PDU header or tail, thus encapsulating or decapsulating the SDU as it passes through the layers. Role:A PDU represents a packet with SDUs (raw service data) and control information required for the network to process the data correctly. This control information can include error checking, segmentation, identification, and other control mechanisms to ensure that the data can be properly routed and transmitted. 3、SDUs and PDUs The use of SDUs and PDUs in 5G(NR) networks is critical to ensure that data is properly formatted and processed at different layers, where Layer2 in 5G(NR) handles PDUs and SDUs as follows: PDCP Layer:Handles PDCP PDUs, which encapsulate upper layer SDUs (from RRC or user data) with control information (e.g., sequence numbers and header compression) for efficient transmission. RLC Layer:Manages RLC PDUs, segments and reorganizes RLC SDUs to ensure reliable transmission of data over the network. MAC Layer:Utilizes the MAC PDU aspect of formatted data units containing primarily MAC headers and payloads to ensure that data is efficiently scheduled and transmitted by the physical layer. 4、The data processing process 5G (NR) system data processing specific process is shown in the following figure:

One of the new protocols introduced in the 5G(NR) stack is the CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation) architecture; a form of architecture that allows for the separation of control-plane functionality from user-plane functionality, thus providing greater flexibility and efficiency in managing network traffic and resources.CUPS, an important feature in 5G, enables more dynamic and efficient network operations.   Ⅰ、Definition of CUPS This is an architectural concept introduced in 5G(NR), which divides the network functions into two different planes: the control plane and the user plane, and each of these planes has a specific purpose in the network, where.   1.1 The Control Plane is responsible for managing the signaling and control functions of the network; it handles tasks such as network setup, resource allocation, mobility management, and session establishment. Functions in the Control Plane are typically more sensitive to latency and require real-time processing.   1.2 The User Plane handles the actual user data traffic, which carries user-generated content such as web pages, videos, and other application data. Functions in the User Plane focus on providing high throughput and low latency for data transfer.   Ⅱ、The CUPS architecture benefits mainly in; Flexibility:CUPS provides network operators with the flexibility to independently extend and manage control and user plane functions. This means they can allocate resources more efficiently based on traffic demand. Network Optimization: With separate control and user planes, operators can allocate workloads as needed to optimize network performance. Resource Efficiency:CUPS allows dynamic resource allocation, ensuring that control plane tasks do not impact user plane performance and vice versa. Service Innovation: It supports the creation of innovative services and applications that require low latency, high bandwidth and efficient resource management.   Ⅲ、Implementing Use Cases CUPS is particularly beneficial for applications such as IoT (Internet of Things) that require efficient management of many devices. It is also critical for low-latency services such as AR (Augmented Reality), VR (Virtual Reality), and V2X (Self-Driving Cars), where minimal latency in data processing is critical.   Ⅳ、CUPS Implementation The network infrastructure needs to be upgraded to support the separation of these planes. This typically involves the use of SDN (Software Defined Networking) and NFV (Network Functions Virtualization) technologies.CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation) is a fundamental architectural feature introduced in the 5G (NR) stack that enhances network agility, efficiency, and performance by separating control and user-plane functions to enable dynamic resource allocation and enable innovative services with low latency requirements.