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One of the new protocols introduced in the 5G(NR) stack is the CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation) architecture; a form of architecture that allows for the separation of control-plane functionality from user-plane functionality, thus providing greater flexibility and efficiency in managing network traffic and resources.CUPS, an important feature in 5G, enables more dynamic and efficient network operations.   Ⅰ、Definition of CUPS This is an architectural concept introduced in 5G(NR), which divides the network functions into two different planes: the control plane and the user plane, and each of these planes has a specific purpose in the network, where.   1.1 The Control Plane is responsible for managing the signaling and control functions of the network; it handles tasks such as network setup, resource allocation, mobility management, and session establishment. Functions in the Control Plane are typically more sensitive to latency and require real-time processing.   1.2 The User Plane handles the actual user data traffic, which carries user-generated content such as web pages, videos, and other application data. Functions in the User Plane focus on providing high throughput and low latency for data transfer.   Ⅱ、The CUPS architecture benefits mainly in; Flexibility:CUPS provides network operators with the flexibility to independently extend and manage control and user plane functions. This means they can allocate resources more efficiently based on traffic demand. Network Optimization: With separate control and user planes, operators can allocate workloads as needed to optimize network performance. Resource Efficiency:CUPS allows dynamic resource allocation, ensuring that control plane tasks do not impact user plane performance and vice versa. Service Innovation: It supports the creation of innovative services and applications that require low latency, high bandwidth and efficient resource management.   Ⅲ、Implementing Use Cases CUPS is particularly beneficial for applications such as IoT (Internet of Things) that require efficient management of many devices. It is also critical for low-latency services such as AR (Augmented Reality), VR (Virtual Reality), and V2X (Self-Driving Cars), where minimal latency in data processing is critical.   Ⅳ、CUPS Implementation The network infrastructure needs to be upgraded to support the separation of these planes. This typically involves the use of SDN (Software Defined Networking) and NFV (Network Functions Virtualization) technologies.CUPS (Control and User Plane Separation) is a fundamental architectural feature introduced in the 5G (NR) stack that enhances network agility, efficiency, and performance by separating control and user-plane functions to enable dynamic resource allocation and enable innovative services with low latency requirements.  

In addition to the 2G~5G mobile communication technologies defined by 3GPP, there are also wireless communication supported by non 3GPP such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and NTN (satellite communication) in the wireless communication system; 3GPP has introduced the support for non 3GPP in the 5G core network since Release17, which means that NTN and others can also access 5GC defined by 3GPP, and terminals can realize the mobility between 3GPP and non 3GPP; i. Interworking with non 3GPP This is to realize the interaction between the non-granted non 3GPP network and the 5G core network (5GC). The terminal can realize the movement between 3GPP and non 3GPP;   1、Interworking with non3GPP This is to realize the interworking between the non-granted non 3GPP network and the 5G core network (5GCN); during this period, the N3IWF will act as a gateway to the 5GCN and support the N2 and N3 interfaces to the 5GCN; the N3IWF will also provide a secure connection for the terminals (UEs) that are accessing the 5GCN through the non 3GPP network, and support IPsec between the UEs and the N3IWF. ii. IPsec between UE and N3IWF.   2、The interfaces, agreements and procedures, and QoS in the architecture for non-credit non 3GPP network interworking with the 5G core support control plane (CP) functionality, including registration and PDU session establishment, as well as user plane (UP) functionality, including non-credit non 3GPP access and QoS in N3IWF. Currently, the 3GPP specification only supports WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network (Wi-Fi) Access Network) as a non 3GPP access network;   3、Why do we need non 3GPP? Non-credit WLANs include public hotspots, home Wi-Fi, enterprise Wi-Fi, etc. that are not traditionally under the control of the mobile network operator By enabling convergence with individual 5GCNs that provide a variety of IP-based services, these non-credit non3GPP/WLANs can complement 3GPP radio access network coverage and address the following issues: Increased capacity and intelligent traffic offloading to avoid data congestion and reduce backhaul costs; Providing better coverage and connectivity in high-density traffic environments and indoor environments; Value-added services, innovative mobile solutions and mobile engagement creating new business opportunities; Increased capacity and unified management reducing capital and operating costs for operators; Providing enhanced services to customers in a cost-effective manner. 4、WLAN and 3GPP As shown in Figure (1) below untrusted WLAN and 3GPP mobile network can access 3GPP network before 4G/5G from untrusted WLAN through WAG (Wireless Access Gateway) and PDG (Packet Data Gateway). Wherein:The PDG comprises a subset of TTG (Tunnel Terminal Gateway) and GGSN functionality that works in concert with the TTG.The AAA server is used to authenticate the UE through the WAG using EAP-AKA/EAP-SIM authentication over the untrusted WLAN. CP (control) signaling between the TTG and the GGSN uses the GTPC agreement and establishes a PDP context for the user session. For each established UE session the IPsec tunnel terminates at the TTG and establishes the corresponding GTPU tunnel to the GGSN.   5、The 4G network can be accessed from untrusted WLANs through the ePDG (Evolved Packet Data Gateway) using EAP-AKA/EAP-AKA authentication and AAA server. the CP signaling between the ePDG and the PGW uses the GTPC/PMIP agreement and establishes the bearer for the user session. For each UE session established over the untrusted WLAN. the IPsec tunnel terminates at the ePDG and establishes the corresponding GTPU/GRE tunnel to the PGW. The dual-stack MIPv6 agreement can also be used to establish IPsec between the UE and the ePDG for CP signaling, and to establish a tunnel between the UE and the PGW for user-plane (UP) messaging.

Into the 5G era often heard about non 3GPP access to 5G (NR) system discussion; then 3GPP and non 3GPP what is the difference?   1、3GPP and non 3GPP 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) is a cooperation between various telecommunication standard organizations, which defines the cellular network technology standards include: 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE) and 5G (NR). non 3GPP refers to other network technologies and standards outside the scope of 3GPP, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and satellite networks. These non 3GPP technologies are typically used to complement 3GPP-defined cellular network communications. 2、3GPP and non 3GPP differ in that they manage different standards and specifications for communications networks, among others: 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) is an organization that develops and maintains global standards for mobile telecommunications, including 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G technologies. non 3GPP, on the other hand, refers to other communication technologies or standards not defined by 3GPP, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or NTN (satellite communications), which may use different agreements and standards. 3、3GPP stands for the Third Generation Partnership Project, an international body responsible for developing and maintaining technical standards for mobile telecommunications, which defines technical standards, including 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G, to ensure mobile network and device interoperability and global compatibility.   4、3GPP and non 3GPP interoperability 3GPP and non 3GPP through the GID (Global Identifier) to identify each other access to the mobile communications network, in the common identifier GID includes: IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) and IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) and other identifiers. These identifiers are used to manage and verify different types of network access users and devices.   5、LTE and 3GPP LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a specific technology developed and standardized by 3GPP as part of its 4G network specification; and the range of standards and technologies covered by 3GPP is not limited to LTE, but also includes earlier technologies such as 2G, 3G, and future technologies such as 5G. Thus, while LTE is a product of 3GPP's work, 3GPP itself represents a broader range of mobile network standards and specifications.

3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) is an international collaboration among seven telecommunication standards development organizations (ARIB, ATIS, CCSA, ETSI, TSG, ITU, and TTA); this organization works together to develop and maintain technical specifications for 2G, 3G, 4G, LTE-Advanced, and 5G mobile networks. 3GPP also works together with other service providers (e.g., handset manufacturers, mobile network operators, software vendors, and telecommunications companies) to ensure the latest technological developments. 3GPP also works with other service providers (such as handset manufacturers, mobile network operators, software vendors, and telecommunications companies) to ensure that the latest technologies are developed.   I. History of 3GPP 3GPP was established in December 1998 as a result of the merger of 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) and 3GPP2 (Third Generation Partnership Project 2). 3GPP is the successor to the GSM Technical Specification Group (GSM/GPRS) and the IMT-2000 Technical Specification Group (UMTS/HSPA). The merger was a response to the telecommunications industry's growing demand for global standards and the need for a single unified standards body.   II. 3GPP RESPONSIBILITIES 3GPP plays an important role in setting global standards for mobile communications and is responsible for the development of core networks, radio access networks, and a wide range of other related technologies. 3GPP standards provide the foundation for the development of new technologies such as 5G, IoT (Internet of Things), and mobile broadband. These standards also ensure interoperability and seamless roaming between different mobile networks around the world.   III.3GPP Technical Standards 3GPP has published technical standards from GSM to NR. The following are some of the key standards in mobile communications: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate - GSM Evolution) UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) EPC (Evolved Packet Core) SAE (System Architecture Evolution) LTE (Long Term Evolution) NR (5G-New Radio) MBS (Mobile Broadcast Service) VoIP (Voice over IP) MBMS (Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service) IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem)   IV.3GPP and 5G The 3GPP standard regarding 5G is Release 16, which was released in March 2020. A number of new features and technologies have been introduced in Release 16 that will help to improve the performance and speed of 5G networks and improve the security of 5G communications. These features include support for wireless technologies such as Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) and network slicing, as well as improved Vehicular Networking (V2X) communication capabilities. In addition, Release 16 provides the necessary specifications and tools to support the deployment of 5G networks in a wide range of connectivity scenarios, from home broadband and enterprise applications to public safety and industrial IoT.

GTP is a data tunneling mechanism, which is used in 5G(NR) networks for the transmission of user data and signaling information between the user function (UPF) and the data network (DN).GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol) is used in 5G(NR) architectures as a communication protocol between different network elements for tunnel establishment in order to transmit data efficiently.The specific applications of the GTP tunneling protocol in 5G are presented as follows; i. User-plane communication:GTP tunnels are mainly associated with the user-plane, which handles the transmission of user data between UPF and data network (DN), whereas the tunneling of user data between the UPF and the data network is mainly associated with the user-plane, which handles the transmission of user data between UPF and the DN. GTP tunneling protocol specific applications are presented in the following aspects;   User-plane communication:GTP tunneling is mainly associated with the user-plane, which handles user data transmission between the UPF and the data network (DN), while the user-plane is responsible for forwarding user packets while ensuring efficient and reliable communication. Tunnel Establishment:GTP tunnels are established to encapsulate user packets and create a secure and efficient communication path between the UPF and the data network. GTP tunnels provide a logical connection for the seamless transfer of data. Application Versions:There are different versions of GTP in 5G(NR), including GTPv1-U (for the user-plane GTP V1) and GTPv1-C (for the control-plane version).GTPv1-U is usually associated with GTP tunnels in the user-plane. User-Plane Functions:The UPF is the key component in the 5G network architecture responsible for handling user-plane traffic.GTP tunnels connect the UPF to the data network and enable the UPF to forward user packets efficiently. Encapsulation and Decapsulation:At the source, GTP encapsulates user packets and adds headers to facilitate transmission through the GTP tunnel. At the destination, GTP decapsulates the packet and removes the added header to retrieve the original user data. Data Network:DN is the external network to which UPF is connected, which can include various external networks such as the Internet, public or private cloud services, and other communication networks. QoS and Billing:GTP tunnels can carry Quality of Service (QoS) information and billing-related details.QoS information ensures that user data is transmitted according to specified quality parameters, while billing information is critical for billing and accounting purposes. Context Bearer: GTP tunnels are associated with bearer contexts, which represent the logical connection between the user equipment (UE) and the UPF. Each bearer context corresponds to a specific GTP tunnel, allowing the network to manage multiple user data streams simultaneously. Efficient Data Transmission:GTP tunnels improve data transmission efficiency by providing a secure and dedicated path for user data. This is critical to providing the high data rates, low latency and reliable communications required for 5G networks. 3GPP standardization:GTP and its related functions (including GTP tunnels) are standardized by the 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project), which ensures consistency, interoperability, and compatibility between different 5G networks and providers.   GTP tunneling in 5G is the fundamental mechanism for establishing a secure and efficient communication path between user-plane functions and external data networks. By encapsulating and de-encapsulating user packets, it enables seamless data transmission while supporting key functions such as QoS and billing information. And its standardized nature ensures the reliability and interoperability of global 5G networks.  

1、Carrier aggregation (CA) is used to increase the bandwidth of a terminal (UE) for wireless communications by combining multiple carriers, where each aggregated carrier is called a component carrier (CC). carrier aggregation (CA) for 5G (NR) systems supports up to 16 contiguous and non-contiguous component carriers with different subcarrier intervals; carrier aggregation configurations include the type of carrier aggregation (in-band, contiguous or non-contiguous, or inter-band) The carrier aggregation configuration includes the type of carrier aggregation (in-band or non-contiguous or inter-band), the number of frequency bands and the bandwidth category.   2、The aggregation bandwidth category is identified in 5G(NR) with a series of alphabetical identifiers that define the minimum and maximum bandwidth and the number of component carriers. Among them: The 5G carrier aggregation CA supports up to 16 contiguous and non-contiguous component carriers with different SCSs; CA classes from A~O in FR1 (Release17); The maximum total bandwidth allowed by the CA in FR1 band is 400MHz; CA class from A~Q in FR2 (Release17) The maximum total bandwidth allowed for FR2 band CA is 800MHz; 3、FR1 carrier aggregation bandwidth Class A:Corresponds to Wireless Channel Carrier Aggregation 5G(NR) Configuration. The maximum BWChannel (carrier band) depends on the band number and the parameter set. The parameter set defines the SCS (Sub Carrier Spacing) between subcarriers.Class A belongs to all fallback groups and allows the UE to return to the basic configuration without aggregating carriers. Class B: corresponds to the aggregation of 2 radio channels to obtain a total bandwidth between 20 and 100 MHz; Class C: corresponds to the aggregation of 2 radio channels to obtain a total bandwidth between 20 and 100 MHz. Class C: corresponds to the aggregation of 2 radio channels to obtain a total bandwidth between 100 and 200 MHz; Class D: corresponds to the aggregation of 2 radio channels to obtain a total bandwidth between 20 and 100 MHz. Class D: the total bandwidth obtained by aggregating 3 wireless channels is between 200 and 300 MHz; Class E: the total bandwidth obtained by aggregating 4 wireless channels is between 300 and 400 MHz. ---- Classes C, D and E belong to the same fallback group 1. Class G: corresponds to the aggregation of 3 wireless channels to obtain a total bandwidth between 100~150MHz. Class H: corresponds to the aggregation of 4 radio channels with a total bandwidth between 150 and 200 MHz. Class I: corresponds to 5 radio channels aggregated into a total bandwidth between 200 and 250 MHz. Class J: corresponding to 6 radio channels aggregated into a total bandwidth between 250~300MHz Class K: corresponds to 7 wireless channels aggregated into a total bandwidth between 300~350MHz. Class L: corresponds to 8 wireless channels aggregated into a total bandwidth between 350~400MHz. -----G~L class belongs to the same fallback group2     4、FR2 Carrier Aggregation Bandwidth Class A: Corresponds to the No Carrier Aggregation 5G (NR) configuration. The maximum BWChannel (carrier band) depends on the band number and the parameter set. The parameter set defines the SCS (Sub-Carrier Spacing) between subcarriers; ---- Class A belongs to all fallback groups and allows the UE to return to the basic configuration without aggregating carriers. Class B: corresponds to 2 wireless channels aggregated with a total bandwidth between 400 and 800 MHz Class C:Corresponds to 2 wireless channels aggregated with total bandwidth between 800~1200MHz. ---- Class B is the fallback group of Class C, both belong to the same fallback group 1. Class D: corresponds to 2 wireless channels with aggregated total bandwidth between 200~400MHz. Class E: corresponds to 3 wireless channels with aggregated total bandwidth between 400 and 600 MHz. Class F: corresponds to 4 wireless channels aggregated with a total bandwidth between 600 and 800 MHz. ----D, E and F classes belong to the same fallback group 2. Class G: corresponds to 2 wireless channels aggregated with total bandwidth between 100~200 MHz Class H: corresponds to 3 wireless channels aggregated with total bandwidth between 200~300 MHz Class I: corresponds to 4 wireless channels with aggregated total bandwidth between 300 and 400 MHz. Class J: corresponding to 5 wireless channels aggregated total bandwidth between 400~500MHz Class K: corresponding to 6 wireless channels aggregated with a total bandwidth of 500~600MHz Class L: corresponds to 7 wireless channels aggregated with total bandwidth between 600~700MHz Class M: corresponds to 8 wireless channels aggregated with a total bandwidth between 700 and 800 MHz. ----G, H, I, J, K, L and M classes belong to the same fallback group 3.

Ⅰ、Protocols are the rules and standards that define how data is connected, transmitted and managed over a network. In the field of communications protocols ensure that hardware and software operate harmoniously across different end-user devices (UEs) and infrastructures, and they control everything from the formation, transmission and reception of packets to the safe and efficient connection and communication of devices.   Ⅱ、Why protocols are needed this is because of the following reasons; Interoperability:Protocols standardize the communication between different systems and devices, ensuring that they can interact with information (signaling) without discrimination. System Efficiency:Optimized protocols make better use of network resources, reduce costs and improve quality of service. System Security: Protocols incorporate security measures to protect the integrity, confidentiality and authenticity of data. Scalability: Standardized protocols support the expansion of network functions without requiring major changes to the core network structure. Ⅲ、The protocol layering in the 5G (NR) network system its protocol structure for layered management, commonly used layer three architecture for the L1, L2 and L3 layers. This structure helps modular organization of network functions, simplifies the design, implementation and troubleshooting; the role of each layer is as follows:   3.1 L1 (Physical Layer) Purpose:The physical layer is responsible for transmitting and receiving raw bit streams over physical media, specifically converting digital bits into signals and vice versa. Physical layer 5G functions mainly include:​ ❶ Waveform Generation:The use of OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) enables efficient and interference-resistant high-speed data transmission. ❷ Modulation and demodulation: Determine the signal formation method and modulation scheme (e.g. QPSK, QAM) according to the network conditions. ❸ Data error correction: techniques such as forward error correction are used to improve data integrity without retransmission.     3.2 L2 (Data Link Layer) Purpose:The data link layer ensures that data is transmitted reliably over the physical network, allows data to be organized into frames and detects/resolves errors that occur at the physical layer. 5G Data Link Sublayer: ❶ MAC (Media Access Control): Manages and maintains control of the radio channel and multiplexes data streams from various sources. ❷ RLC (Radio Link Control): Enhances reliability by segmenting and reorganizing packets, and manages error correction through ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request). ❸ PDCP (Packet Data Convergence Protocol): compresses headers and provides encryption and integrity checking to ensure the security of user data.   3.3 L3 (Network Layer) Purpose: The network layer is responsible for transmitting packets from the source host to the destination host based on the address of the packet. It defines the path taken by the packet from the sender to the receiver. Key Functions in 5G： ❶ IP Routing and Transport: Manages packet forwarding, including addressing, routing, and flow control. ❷ Session Management: Manages the setup and maintenance of network connections. ❸ Mobility Management: Handles the operations required to move devices between sectors or networks while maintaining ongoing sessions.  

As the train enters the high-speed rail era, communication in the railroad private network becomes more and more important; GSM-R and 5G/FRMCS wireless networks are the key to ensure high-speed, continuous and reliable communication for current and next-generation railroad operation and safety. In railroad communication networks including GSM-R and 5G(NR) wireless networks, in addition to coverage and capacity analysis, the environment such as train stations and tunnels has a significant impact on communication and user perception, and modeling of outdoor and indoor areas (including building structures and materials) can accurately predict signal propagation and ensure reliable communication along the railroads.       1、Railway-specific RAN planning refers to the planning of radio access networks to enable communications for railroad operations, such as signaling and railroad mobile communication systems. This is because the railroad industry has unique requirements for security, performance, and reliability that require special consideration in RAN planning. In addition, the railroad wireless communication network must be sufficiently robust, secure and support continuous communication; in the entire railroad track (including tunnels, under bridges and remote or mountainous areas) to achieve uninterrupted coverage is also critical.   2、Continuous coverage railroads often traverse remote and rugged terrain; to ensure that the signal in all areas of the railroad (including tunnels and bridge crossings) to remain strong and uninterrupted, these are critical to maintaining communications security and operational efficiency.     3、In addition to a high degree of reliability, the network must have sufficient redundancy measures to protect against any communications failures, which are essential for safety-critical systems and managing train operations.     4、High mobility support High-speed train mobility is another unique consideration; the RAN must be able to handle high speeds seamlessly and reliably, during which time it is involved in managing switching between cellular sites without dropping lines or data sessions, which are critical for continuous communications.   5、 Capacity Planning, Quality of Service and Interoperability Railway wireless network RAN planning must also take into account the varying load demands, including increased demand during peak hours and significant fluctuations based on passenger train schedules. Quality of Service (QoS) further requires prioritizing critical communications (e.g., emergency service communications) over less important services. Compatibility of technologies and standards for railroad wireless network (RAN) planning is also important as the railroad industry is transitioning from older technologies such as GSM-R (Global System for Mobile Communications in Railroads) to newer technologies such as FRMCS (Future Railroad Mobile Communications System based on 5G).

Wireless parameters are the settings and configurations that characterize a wireless network (RAN) and play a critical role in determining network performance, coverage and overall functionality. These parameters are critical to delivering the desired user experience, meeting service demands, and ensuring efficient network operation; and the basic wireless parameters in 5G(NR) include the following:   1、 Frequency bands (Sub 6GHz and mmWave):5G can operate in Sub6 GHz and mmWave (millimeter wave) frequency bands, where Sub 6GHz provides wider coverage, while mmWave provides higher data rates but shorter coverage.   2、Parameter Set:It defines parameters such as subcarrier spacing and symbol duration in 5G, which allows flexibility to accommodate a variety of use cases with different latency and throughput requirements.   3、Modulation and Coding:Higher-order modulation schemes such as 256QAM can be used in 5G systems to increase data rates. Adaptive modulation and coding can be dynamically adjusted according to channel conditions to optimize data rates while maintaining reliability.   4、Duplexing Scheme:5G supports full-duplex TDD and FDD communications, which means that it allows simultaneous transmission and reception on the same frequency, and also supports half-duplex configurations for communications in one direction at a time.   5、 Structure Frame: 5G is flexible in time slot and symbol configuration, where flexibility is provided in the time slot and symbol configuration of the frame structure to accommodate a variety of use cases, including low latency and high throughput scenarios.   6、Channel Coding and Error Correction: 5G employs advanced channel coding techniques to enhance error correction and ensure reliable communications even under challenging radio conditions.   7、Multiple Antenna Technologies: 5G networks utilize Mass MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) and Beam Forming to enhance coverage, capacity and overall network efficiency.   8、TimeSlot Format: 5G introduces a variety of time slot formats, including normal time slots, short time slots, and mini time slots, to accommodate different traffic characteristics and delay requirements.   9、Frequency Guidance and Reference Signals: 5G combines frequency guidance and probe reference signals to assist in channel estimation for efficient beamforming and network optimization.   10、TTI (Transmission Time Interval): Defines the time interval between transmissions in the air interface. Configurable TTI allows optimization for different services and use cases.   11、Beam Management: 5G includes parameters related to beamforming that enable efficient beam management, concentrating signals in specific directions to improve signal strength and overall network coverage.   12、Switching Thresholds and Triggers: Defines thresholds and triggers for initiating switching between different cells or base stations to ensure seamless mobility of connected devices.   13、Slicing Configuration Parameters: 5G parameters in the context of network slicing include the configuration of different network slices, each of which is customized according to specific service requirements and characteristics.   14、Authentication and Encryption: Settings Security parameters include settings related to user authentication, encryption, and integrity protection to ensure confidentiality and integrity of communications.   15、SBA Architecture: With the transition to a service-based architecture, parameters related to service provisioning, orchestration, and management play a vital role in providing flexible and efficient services.   16、Quality of Service QoS parameters: include settings used to prioritize different types of traffic, ensuring that critical applications receive the necessary resources and meet specific performance criteria.   17、Carrier Aggregation :defines how multiple frequency bands are aggregated to increase overall network capacity and data rates.   18、Interference Management: Parameters related to interference management include configurations to mitigate interference from adjacent cells or frequency bands and optimize overall network performance.   19、Power Saving and Sleep Mode: 5G parameters include settings for sleep mode and power saving features to optimize the energy consumption of connected devices and network infrastructure.   20、Network Interoperability Parameters: Parameters related to the coexistence of 5G with previous generations, such as LTE (Long Term Evolution), to ensure smooth transition and interoperability.   5G parameters cover a wide range of settings and configurations, from frequency bands and modulation schemes to security, QoS, and network slicing; optimizing these parameters is critical to delivering the desired user experience, supporting different use cases, and ensuring efficiency.  

I. AMF and NW Slicing Selection The AMF is selected when CN-RAN and NG RAN interact information according to Table 16.3.2.1-1 Terminal (UE) provides Temp ID or NSSAI through RRC.   II.Radio Interface Support When a service is triggered by the upper layer the terminal (UE) transmits the NSSAI via RRC in a format explicitly indicated by the upper layer.   III.Wireless Resource Isolation and Management Resource isolation can be implemented specifically tailored to avoid one slice affecting another. Whereas hardware/software resource isolation depends on the implementation, where each slice can be allocated shared, prioritized or dedicated wireless resources; depending on the RRM implementation and SLAs (as described in TS 28.541 [49]); in order to be able to differentiate traffic with different SLAs for network slices, the NG-RAN will:     NG-RAN configure a different set of configurations for different network slices via OAM; Select the appropriate configuration for each network slice of traffic, and the NG-RAN receives relevant information indicating which configurations apply to this particular network slice. Slice-based RACH configurations for RA isolation and prioritization can be included in SIB1 messages. The slice-based RACH configuration is associated with a specific NSAG, and if the UE does not provide the NSAG used for selecting the RACH configuration, the UE does not consider the NSAG used for selecting the slice-based RACH configuration.The UE determines the NSAG to be considered during the RA as specified in TS 23.501 [3].The UE will not apply the slice-based RACH configuration when the UE AS does not receive any of the information used for the random access NSAG from the NAS. information, the UE does not apply the slice-based RACH configuration.   IV Slicing Resource Handling NG-RAN nodes can use multicarrier resource sharing or resource reclassification to allocate resources to slices to support slice service continuity in case of slice resource shortage.     In multicarrier resource sharing, RAN nodes can set up dual connections or carrier aggregations with different frequencies and overlapping coverage where the same slices are available. Resource reallocation allows a slice to use resources in a shared or/and prioritized pool when its own dedicated or prioritized resources are unavailable, and the use of unused resources in the prioritized pool is as described in TS 28.541 [49]. The slicing RRM policy/limit associated with resource reallocation is configured by O&M. Measurements of RRM policy utilization based on resource types defined in TS 28.541 [49] are reported by the RAN node to the O&M and may result in the O&M updating the configuration of the sliced RRM policies/restrictions. V. Slice-based Cell Reselection Its information may be included in the SIB16 and RRCRelease messages delivered. The slice-based cell reselection information may include: a reselection priority per frequency per NSAG and a corresponding list of cells that support or do not support slicing of NSAGs. the UE determines that the NSAGs and their priorities are to be taken into account during cell reselection (see described in TS 23.501 [3] and TS 38.304 [10]).   When slice-based cell reselection is supported and slice-based cell reselection information is provided to the UE, the UE will use the slice-based cell reselection information.Valid cell reselection information provided in the RRCRelease always takes precedence over the cell reselection information provided in the SIB message. When no slice-based cell reselection information is provided for determining any NSAG to be considered during cell reselection (as described in TS 23.501 [3]), the UE will use the general cell reselection information i.e. without considering the NSAG and its priority.